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Low Cost, Discount, Kidney Transplant Surgery total price $19,800
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International Kidney Transplant
Surgery
Kidney Transplant Surgery - Kidney Transplants
- Kidney Transplant
Surgery
Are you or someone you know on a Kidney Transplant waiting
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2009 Kidney Transplant
Surgery Cash Discount Prices
The price list below is for India "only". If you want prices for medical
services in other countries, call Frank toll free (800) 771-3325. During nights and
weekends, email
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free, comprehensive, no obligation quote.
Kidney open transplant surgery
(recipient and donor) cash discount price $19,800
Kidney laparoscopic surgery (recipient and donor) cash
discount price
$19,800
Kidney and pancreas transplant surgery cash discount
price $36,000
Liver transplant surgery cash discount price $45,000
Bone marrow transplant surgery cash discount price $21,600
Package Includes:
- Attending Doctor/Surgeon's fees, nursing,
material cost, pre and post procedure consultations, tests and physical
examination.
- Medical surgical procedure hospital costs
- All ancillary medical surgical staff
- All medications, medical supplies and drugs
used during the in-patient hospital stay.
- Room fees for a private air conditioned
room. Notes...Room includes bathroom, TV, telephone. Room includes
accommodations for one guest.
- Meals as served
according and available at the hospital.
- Rental of pre-activated cellular phone for
use during stay. Note: Phone usage charges are not included in price.
- All diagnostic tests, laboratory, radiology
etc. before and after the procedure as required for the procedure and as
advised by the attending physician/surgeon.
For more information call toll
free 800-771-3325 or email customer service 24/7/365
24 hours - 7 days a week - 365 days a year
Kidney Transplant
Surgery Information
Total Costs $19,800
Definition
Kidney transplantation is a
surgical procedure to remove a healthy, functioning kidney from
a living or brain-dead donor and implant it into a patient with
nonfunctioning kidneys.
Purpose
Kidney transplantation is
performed on patients with chronic kidney failure, or end-stage
renal disease (ESRD). ESRD occurs when a disease, disorder, or
congenital condition damages the kidneys so that they are no
longer capable of adequately removing fluids and wastes from the
body or of maintaining the proper level of certain
kidney-regulated chemicals in the bloodstream. Without long-term
dialysis or a kidney transplant, ESRD is fatal.
Demographics
Diabetes mellitus is the leading
single cause of ESRD. According to the 2002 Annual Data Report
of the United States Renal Data System (USRDS), 42% of
non-Hispanic dialysis patients in the United States have ESRD
caused by diabetes. People of Native American and Hispanic
descent are at an elevated risk for both kidney disease and
diabetes. Hypertension (high blood pressure) is the second
leading cause of ESRD in adults, accounting for 25.5% of the
patient population, followed by glomerulonephritis (8.4%).
African Americans are more likely to develop
hypertension-related ESRD than Caucasians and Hispanics. Among
children and young adults under 20 on dialysis,
glomerulonephritis is the leading cause of ESRD
For a kidney transplant, an incision is
made in the lower abdomen (A). The donor kidney is connected to
the patient's blood supply lower in the abdomen than the native
kidneys, which are usually left in place (B). A transplanted
ureter connects the donor kidney to the patient's bladder (C). (Illustration
by GGS Inc.)
(31%), and hereditary, cystic,
and congenital diseases account for 37%. According to USRDS, the
average waiting period for a kidney transplant for patients
under age 20 is 10 months, compared to the adult wait of
approximately two years.
Description
Kidney transplantation involves
surgically attaching a functioning kidney, or graft, from a
brain-dead organ donor (a cadaver transplant) or from a living
donor to a patient with ESRD. Living donors may be related or
unrelated to the patient, but a related donor has a better
chance of having a kidney that is a stronger biological match
for the patient
Open Nephrectomy
The surgical procedure to remove
a kidney from a living donor is called a nephrectomy. In a
traditional, open nephrectomy, the kidney donor is administered
general anesthesia and a 6–10-in (15.2–25.4-cm) incision through
several layers of muscle is made on the side or front of the
abdomen. The blood vessels connecting the kidney to the donor
are cut and clamped, and the ureter is also cut and clamped
between the bladder and kidney. The kidney and an attached
section of ureter are removed from the donor. The vessels and
ureter in the donor are then tied off and the incision is
sutured together again. A similar procedure is used to harvest
cadaver kidneys, although both kidneys are typically removed at
once, and blood and cell samples for tissue typing are also
taken.
Laparoscopic Nephrectomy
Laparoscopic nephrectomy is a
form of minimally invasive surgery using instruments on long,
narrow rods to view, cut, and remove the donor kidney. The
surgeon views the kidney and surrounding tissue with a flexible
videoscope. The videoscope and surgical instruments are
maneuvered through four small incisions in the abdomen, and
carbon dioxide is pumped into the abdominal cavity to inflate it
for an improved visualization of the kidney. Once the kidney is
freed, it is secured in a bag and pulled through a fifth
incision, approximately 3 in (7.6 cm) wide, in the front of the
abdominal wall below the navel. Although this surgical technique
takes slightly longer than an open nephrectomy, studies have
shown that it promotes a faster recovery time, shorter hospital
stays, and less postoperative pain for kidney donors.
A modified laparoscopic technique
called hand-assisted laparoscopic nephrectomy may also be used
to remove the kidney. In the hand-assisted surgery, a small
incision of 3–5 in (7.6–12.7 cm) is made in the patient's
abdomen. The incision allows the surgeon to place his hand in
the abdominal cavity using a special surgical glove that also
maintains a seal for the inflation of the abdominal cavity with
carbon dioxide. The technique gives the surgeon the benefit of
using his or her hands to feel the kidney and related
structures. The kidney is then removed through the incision by
hand instead of with a bag.
Once removed, kidneys from live
donors and cadavers are placed on ice and flushed with a cold
preservative solution. The kidney can be preserved in this
solution for 24–48 hours until the transplant takes place. The
sooner the transplant takes place after harvesting the kidney,
the better the chances are for proper functioning.
Kidney Transplant
During the transplant operation,
the kidney recipient is typically under general anesthesia and
administered antibiotics to prevent possible infection. A
catheter is placed in the bladder before surgery begins. An
incision is made in the flank of the patient, and the surgeon
implants the kidney above the pelvic bone and below the
existing, non-functioning kidney by suturing the kidney artery
and vein to the patient's iliac artery and vein. The ureter of
the new kidney is attached directly to the kidney recipient's
bladder. Once the new kidney is attached, the patient's
existing, diseased kidneys may or may not be removed, depending
on the circumstances surrounding the kidney failure. Barring any
complications, the transplant operation takes about three to
four hours.
Since 1973, Medicare has picked
up 80% of ESRD treatment costs, including the costs of
transplantation for both the kidney donor and the recipient.
Medicare also covers 80% of immunosuppressive medication costs
for up to three years. To qualify for Medicare ESRD benefits, a
patient must be insured or eligible for benefits under Social
Security, or be a spouse or child of an eligible American.
Private insurance and state Medicaid programs often cover the
remaining 20% of treatment costs. Patients with a history of
heart disease, lung disease, cancer, or hepatitis may not be
suitable candidates for receiving a kidney transplant.
Diagnosis/Preparation
Patients with chronic renal
disease who need a transplant and do not have a living donor
registered with United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) to be
placed on a waiting list for a cadaver kidney transplant. UNOS
is a non-profit organization that is under contract with the
federal government to administer the Organ Procurement and
Transplant Network (OPTN) and the national Scientific Registry
of Transplant Recipients (SRTR).
Kidney allocation is based on a
mathematical formula that awards points for factors that can
affect a successful transplant, such as time spent on the
transplant list, the patient's health status, and age. The most
important part of the equation is that the kidney be compatible
with the patient's body. A human kidney has a set of six
antigens, substances that stimulate the production of
antibodies. (Antibodies then attach to cells they recognize as
foreign and attack them.) Donors are tissue matched for 0–6 of
the antigens, and compatibility is determined by the number and
strength of those matched pairs. Blood type matching is also
important. Patients with a living donor who is a close relative
have the best chance of a close match.
Before being placed on the
transplant list, potential kidney recipients must undergo a
comprehensive physical evaluation. In addition to the
compatibility testing, radiological tests, urine tests, and a
psychological evaluation will be performed. A panel of reactive
antibody (PRA) is performed by mixing the patient's serum (white
blood cells) with serum from a panel of 60 randomly selected
donors. The patient's PRA sensitivity is determined by how many
of these random samples his or her serum reacts with; for
example, a reaction to the antibodies of six of the samples
would mean a PRA of 10%. High reactivity (also called
sensitization) means that the recipient would likely reject a
transplant from the donor. The more reactions, the higher the
PRA and the lower the chances of an overall match from the
general population. Patients with a high PRA face a much longer
waiting period for a suitable kidney match.
Potential living kidney donors
also undergo a complete medical history and physical examination
to evaluate their suitability for donation. Extensive blood
tests are performed on both donor and recipient. The blood
samples are used to tissue type for antigen matches, and confirm
that blood types are compatible. A PRA is performed to ensure
that the recipient antibodies will not have a negative reaction
to the donor antigens. If a reaction does occur, there are some
treatment protocols that can be attempted to reduce reactivity,
including immunosuppresant drugs and plasmapheresis (a blood
filtration therapy).
The donor's kidney function will
be evaluated with a urine test as well. In some cases, a special
dye that shows up on x rays is injected into an artery, and x
rays are taken to show the blood supply of the donor kidney (a
procedure called an arteriogram).
Once compatibility is confirmed
and the physical preparations for kidney transplantation are
complete, both donor and recipient may undergo a psychological
or psychiatric evaluation to ensure that they are emotionally
prepared for the transplant procedure and aftercare regimen.
Aftercare
A typical hospital stay for a
transplant recipient is about five days. Both kidney donors and
recipients will experience some discomfort in the area of the
incision after surgery. Pain relievers are administered
following the transplant operation. Patients may also experience
numbness, caused by severed nerves, near or on the incision.
A regimen of immunosuppressive,
or anti-rejection, medication is prescribed to prevent the
body's immune system from rejecting the new kidney. Common
immunosuppressants include cyclosporine, prednisone, tacrolimus,
mycophenolate mofetil, sirolimus, baxsiliximab, daclizumab, and
azathioprine. The kidney recipient will be required to take a
course of mmunosuppresant drugs for the lifespan of the new
kidney. Intravenous antibodies may also be administered after
kidney transplant surgery and during rejection episodes.
Because the patient's immune
system is suppressed, he or she is at an increased risk for
infection. The incision area should be kept clean, and the
transplant recipient should avoid contact with people who have
colds, viruses, or similar illnesses. If the patient has pets,
he or she should not handle animal waste. The transplant team
will provide detailed instructions on what should be avoided
post-transplant. After recovery, the patient will still have to
be vigilant about exposure to viruses and other environmental
dangers.
Kidney transplant recipients may
need to adjust their dietary habits. Certain immunosuppressive
medications cause increased appetite or sodium and protein
retention, and the patient may have to adjust his or her intake
of calories, salt, and protein to compensate.
Risks
As with any surgical procedure,
the kidney transplantation procedure carries some risk for both
a living donor and a graft recipient. Possible complications
include infection and bleeding (hemorrhage). A lymphocele, a
pool of lymphatic fluid around the kidney that is generated by
lymphatic vessels damaged in surgery, occurs in up to 20% of
transplant patients and can obstruct urine flow and/or blood
flow to the kidney if not diagnosed and drained promptly. Less
common is a urine leak outside of the bladder, which occurs in
approximately 3% of kidney transplants when the ureter suffers
damage during the procedure. This problem is usually correctable
with follow-up surgery.
A transplanted kidney may be
rejected by the patient. Rejection occurs when the patient's
immune system recognizes the new kidney as a foreign body and
attacks the kidney. It may occur soon after transplantation, or
several months or years after the procedure has taken place.
Rejection episodes are not uncommon in the first weeks after
transplantation surgery, and are treated with high-dose
injections of immunosuppressant drugs. If a rejection episode
cannot be reversed and kidney failure continues, the patient
will typically go back on dialysis. Another transplant procedure
can be attempted at a later date if another kidney becomes
available.
The biggest risk to the
recovering transplant recipient is not from the operation or the
kidney itself, but from the immunosuppressive medication he or
she must take. Because these drugs suppress the immune system,
the patient is susceptible to infections such as cytomegalovirus
(CMV) and varicella (chickenpox). Other medications that fight
viral and bacterial infections can offset this risk to a degree.
The immunosuppressants can also cause a host of possible side
effects, from high blood pressure to osteoporosis. Prescription
and dosage adjustments can lessen side effects for some
patients.
Normal Results
The new kidney may start
functioning immediately, or may take several weeks to begin
producing urine. Living donor kidneys are more likely to begin
functioning earlier than cadaver kidneys, which frequently
suffer some reversible damage during the kidney transplant and
storage procedure. Patients may have to undergo dialysis for
several weeks while their new kidney establishes an acceptable
level of functioning.
Studies have shown that after
they recover from surgery, kidney donors typically have no
long-term complications from the loss of one kidney, and their
remaining kidney will increase its functioning to compensate for
the loss of the other.
Morbidity and
Mortality Rates
Survival rates for patients
undergoing kidney transplants are 95–96% one year
post-transplant, and 91% three years after transplant. More than
2,900 patients on the transplant waiting list died in 2001. The
success of a kidney transplant graft depends on the strength of
the match between donor and recipient and the source of the
kidney. According to the OPTN 2002 annual report, cadaver
kidneys have a five-year survival rate of 63%, compared to a 76%
survival rate for living donor kidneys. However, there have been
cases of cadaver and living, related donor kidneys functioning
well for over 25 years. In addition, advances in transplantation
over the past decade have decreased the rate of graft failure;
the USRDS reports that graft failure dropped by 23% in the years
1998–2000 compared to failures occurring between 1994 and 1997.
Alternatives
Patients who develop chronic
kidney failure must either go on dialysis treatment or receive a
kidney transplant to survive.
Who Performs the Kidney Transplants? Where Is It
Performed?
A kidney
transplant is performed by a transplant surgeon
in one of more than 200 UNOS-approved hospitals
nationwide. If the patient has no living donor,
he or she must go through an evaluation
procedure to get on the UNOS national waiting
list and the UNOS Organ Center's UNet database.
Questions to Ask the Doctor
- How
many kidney transplants have both you and
the hospital performed?
- What are
your transplant success rates? How about
those of the hospital?
- Who will be
on my transplant team?
- Can I get on
the waiting list at more than one hospital?
- Will my
transplant be performed with a laparoscopic
or an open nephrectomy?
- What type of
immunosuppressive drugs will I be on
post-transplant?
Organ transplantation is
subject to the law of supply and demand, and
demand for organs far outweighs supply from both
living and deceased donors. But results
from a new, nationwide Scientific Registry of
Transplant Recipients (SRTR) study led by
University of Michigan (U-M) Health System
researchers may offer new hope to some patients
with end-stage renal disease waiting for a
kidney transplant.
The study found that the
growing use of organs from expanded criteria
donors (ECD) - older donors and those with
certain pre-existing kidney or other medical
problems is not only adding to the pool of
kidneys available for transplantation, but also
increasing the chances for survival for certain
patients with end-stage renal disease, depending
on their age, how long they would need to wait
for a donor organ, and the severity of their
kidney disease.
Results from this study
are published in the Dec. 7, 2005, Journal
of the American Medical Association (JAMA).
Currently, more than 64,000 Americans await a
kidney transplant. With the need for kidneys
increasing and the number of available kidneys
from deceased donors failing to keep pace,
patients may wait years for a healthy, or non-ECD,
kidney to become available.
But many can't afford to
wait. So more patients are turning to ECD
kidneys - despite a higher risk for organ
failure - in lieu of staying on dialysis while
waiting for a healthier kidney to become
available, says lead author Robert M. Merion,
M.D., a professor in the surgery department at
U-M Medical School. "The real challenge has been
determining which patients would benefit most by
taking the ECD kidney now and which ones would
be better served by waiting for a healthier
kidney for transplantation," says Merion, the
clinical transplant director for the SRTR, which
is administered by the University Renal Research
and Education Association (URREA), an
independent, nonprofit research organization,
and supports the ongoing evaluation of the
scientific and clinical status of solid organ
transplantation in the United States.
"We calculated the average
lifetime for patients who accept an ECD organ
compared to those who remained on dialysis with
the option of accepting a non-ECD transplant at
a later time, in order to help patients choose
between these options," says co-author Robert A.
Wolfe, Ph.D., professor emeritus of
biostatistics at the U-M School of Public
Health. "The answer depends upon the patient's
situation, so different patients might make
different choices based on their particular
situation and their willingness to trade off an
earlier transplant with an ECD kidney vs. a
higher chance of failure of the transplant."
To gauge which patients
are better off opting for an ECD kidney
transplant now rather than waiting for a non-ECD
kidney, Merion and his colleagues measured the
outcomes of patients on dialysis from the day
they were placed on the organ wait list. The
study looked at all U.S. patients a total of
109,127 people who were on dialysis for kidney
failure and had been added to an organ wait list
between 1995 and 2002. Researchers followed
their progress through July 2004.
Factors such as age,
gender, ethnicity, the cause of the patient's
kidney disease, and the local wait time for a
non-ECD kidney were all taken into account.
Outcomes for patients who did not receive a
transplant or got a non-ECD kidney were then
combined and compared against patients who had
an ECD kidney transplant. By the end of the
study, 7,790 candidates received an ECD kidney
transplant, 41,052 received a non-ECD deceased
donor transplant, 15,203 received a living donor
transplant, and 45,082 either died before
receiving a transplant or were still waiting for
a donor kidney.
Overall, recipients of ECD
kidney transplants had a 17 percent long-term
lower risk of dying when compared with those who
remained on dialysis or eventually received a
non-ECD transplant. However, not all patients
were found to enjoy this benefit. Researchers
found ECD kidneys to have the greatest benefits,
in terms of survival, for patients over the age
of 40 and those who would need to wait more than
44 months for a non-ECD kidney to become
available. Only diabetic patients were found to
benefit from ECD kidneys in areas where wait
times were shorter. For patients younger than
40, there was no significant advantage to
accepting an ECD kidney.
In general, two main
groups of patients emerged as the best
recipients of ECD kidneys: patients with long
projected wait times and/or limited access to
donor kidneys, and those with kidney failure due
to diabetes, which can lead to death from other
medical complications, such as heart attack or
stroke. "ECD kidneys are clearly a good
solution in certain situations," says Merion.
"This study's results allow us, with greater
clarity than before, to maximize the benefits of
ECD kidneys for patients, and match patients
with a transplant option that will offer them
the best chance for survival."
Merion notes that the
study provides useful new information that
transplant physicians can use to counsel
patients entering the wait list for organs.
While this study focuses on survival rates of
kidney transplant patients, Merion says future
research needs to be done to address quality of
life issues for patients who remain on dialysis
and those who opt for an ECD kidney transplant
Kidney Transplant Surgery Total Price $19,800
Affordable Discount Low Cost
International Transplant
Surgery
Kidney Transplant Surgery - Kidney
Transplants - KidneyTransplant
Surgery
NOTE:
The price list below is for India
"only". If you want prices for medical services in other countries, call
Frank toll free (800) 771-3325. For nights and
weekends, email Frank at
internationalsurgeries@yahoo.com to get more information or a
free, comprehensive, no obligation quote.
India - Mexico - Argentina
- Brazil - Malaysia
South Africa - Costa Rica -
China - Bahrain
& many more medical
destinations!
Higher Quality Standards & Services -
Immediate Access - No Waiting Lists
Concierge Customer Service Treatment -
Latest Technology & Research
Comprehensive, Specific, Individual Full Prices
New Lower Package Prices -
FREE Quotes
24/7 - Call toll free (800)
771-3325 or email
internationalsurgeries@yahoo.com
Kidney
transplant - surgery overview
A kidney transplant is surgery to replace
your own diseased kidneys with a healthy
(donor) kidney. See a picture of a kidney
transplant (See figure 1 in appendix). There
are two types of donors:
- Living donors. A living donor may be
a family member, a friend, a co-worker,
or any person who is willing to give a
kidney to someone in need. A person only
needs one healthy kidney to live.
- Cadaver donors. A cadaver donor is
someone who has recently died. Most
donor kidneys come from this source.
In both cases, the key to success is
having the closest possible blood and tissue
matches. A family member is not always the
best match.
You will need to have tests to make sure
the donor kidney matches your tissue type
and blood type. This helps reduce the
chances that your body will reject the new
kidney. You will also be evaluated to make
sure that you do not have significant heart
or lung disease or other diseases, such as
cancer, which might decrease your lifespan.
Kidney transplant surgery takes about 3
hours. During surgery, the donor kidney will
be placed in your lower abdomen, blood
vessels from the donor kidney will be
connected to arteries and veins in your
body, and the ureter from the donor kidney
will be connected to your bladder. Blood is
then able to flow through the new kidney,
and the kidney will begin to filter and
remove wastes and to produce urine.
The new kidney usually begins to function
right away. In most cases, diseased or
damaged kidneys are not removed unless you
have a severe infection of the kidney
(pyelonephritis), kidney cancer, nephrotic
syndrome, or extremely large polycystic
kidneys.
For more information, see the topic Organ
Transplant.
What To Expect
After Surgery
You will have to stay in the hospital for
7 to 10 days after you receive your new
kidney. In some cases, it may take time for
your new kidney to produce urine, so you may
have to receive dialysis and take medicines,
such as diuretics, that help your new kidney
get rid of excess water and salt from your
body.
After the surgery you will have to take
medicines, such as prednisone, azathioprine,
and cyclosporine, to suppress your immune
system. These medicines are used to help
keep your body from rejecting your new
kidney. You will need to take these
medicines for the rest of your life.
During the first weeks to months after
your surgery, your body may try to reject
your new kidney. This is called acute
rejection and occurs in 25% to 55% of people
after transplant. Most of the time, acute
rejection can be treated with
immunosuppressive medicines.
Chronic rejection is a process of
gradual, progressive loss of kidney function
and can occur many months to several years
after your surgery. Experts don't fully
understand what causes chronic rejection.
There is no treatment for chronic rejection.
Most people go back on dialysis or have
another transplant.
Why It Is Done
During kidney transplant surgery, a
healthy kidney (donor kidney) replaces the
lost function of your own damaged kidneys.
Kidney transplant is used when you have
severe chronic kidney disease (renal
failure) that cannot be reversed by another
treatment method. You will not be able to
have this surgery if you have an active
infection, another life-threatening disease
such as cancer, or severe heart or lung
disease.
How Well It
Works
If you have severe chronic kidney disease
and choose to have a kidney transplant, you
may live longer than if you choose only to
treat your kidney disease with dialysis
alone. Survival rates after a kidney
transplant are: 1, 2
- 92% at 1 year.
- 80% at 5 years.
- 54% at 10 years.
Transplants using a kidney from a
first-degree relative, such as your father,
mother, brother, or sister, are the most
successful. Success rates are better when
people have a transplant before kidney
failure becomes so severe that they need
dialysis. 2, 3
Risks
The risks of having a kidney transplant
include:
- Rejection of the new kidney.
- Severe infection.
- Bleeding.
- Reaction to the anesthesia used for
surgery.
- Failure of the donor kidney.
What To Think
About
Kidney transplant may be a better
treatment for you than dialysis, because
survival rates are better after transplant.
You will also be able to live a more normal
life, because you won't have to receive
dialysis 3 times each week. Although a
kidney transplant is an expensive procedure,
it may actually be less costly than
long-term dialysis treatments. The cost of a
kidney transplant is covered by provincial
health plans.
There is often a long wait before you
receive a donor kidney, and there is no
guarantee that the transplant will be
successful. Fewer complications develop in
people who are good candidates for surgery
and who do not have other serious medical
conditions, such as unstable coronary artery
disease or cancer, that may limit their life
expectancy.
Not everyone is able to have a kidney
transplant. You will not usually have a
kidney transplant if you have an active
infection or another life-threatening
disease, such as cancer or significant heart
or lung disease.
After having a kidney transplant, you
will have to take medicines that suppress
your immune system (immunosuppressive
medications), such as prednisone,
azathioprine, tacrolimus, and cyclosporine,
to help prevent your body from rejecting the
new kidney. You will need to take these
medicines for the rest of your life. Because
these medicines weaken your immune system,
you will have an increased risk for
developing serious infections. There is also
the chance that your body may still reject
your new kidney even if you take these
medicines. If this happens, you will have to
start dialysis and possibly wait for another
kidney transplant.
Immunosuppressive medicines also increase
your risk of other diseases, such as skin
cancer, lymphoma, and Kaposi's sarcoma. You
have a greater risk of developing diabetes,
high blood pressure, heart disease,
cataracts, and inflammation of the liver
(cirrhosis) if you are taking these
medicines.
Complete the
surgery information form (PDF)
to help you prepare for this surgery.
References
Citations
- Bretan PN (2004). Renal
transplantation. In EA Tanagho, JW
McAninch, eds., Smith's General
Urology, 16th ed., pp. 546–559.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Barry JM (2007). Renal
transplantation. In PC Walsh et al.,
eds., Campbell-Walsh Urology,
9th ed., vol. 2, pp. 1295–1324.
Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier.
- Mange KC, et al. (2001). Effect
of the use or nonuse of long-term
dialysis on the subsequent survival
of renal transplants from living
donors. New England Journal of
Medicine, 344(10): 726–731.
Credits for
|
Author |
Alison Allen |
|
Author |
Jeannette
Curtis |
|
Editor |
Susan Van
Houten, RN, BSN, MBA |
| Last
Updated |
January 7,
2008 |
|
